Chapter 5---Database Processing

The purpose of database is to keep track of things. A database is a self-describing collection of integrated records. A byte is a character of data. In a database bytes are grouped into columns . Columns are also called fields. Columns are grouped into rows, which are also called records. A group of similar rows or records is called a table or file.
Foreign keys- a column or group of columns used to represent relationships.
Databases that carry their data in the form of tables and that represent relationships using foreign keys are called relational databases. Metadata are data that describe data.
Components of a Database Application System: User---->Database Application: Forms,Reports,Queries,Application Programs----> Database Management System(DBS)----> Database: Tables,Relationships,Metadata.
A database management system is a program used to create,process, and administer a database.
Structured Query Language(SQL) is an international standard language for processing a database.
Database Administration is the management,development,operation, and maintenance of the database so as to achieve the organizations objectives.
A database application is a collection of forms,reports,queries,and application programs that process a database.
Data entry forms are used to read,insert,modify, and delete data.
Multi-user processing is when multiple users process the database at the same time.
Lost update problem is an issue in multi-user database processing in which two or more users try to make changes to the data but the database cannot make all those changes because it was not designed to process changes from multiple users.
Enterprise DBMS products process large organizational and workgroup databases.
Personal DBMS products are designed for smaller,simpler database applications.
Data model is a logical representation of the data in a database that describes the data and relationships that will be stored in the database.
The entity-relationship (E-R) data model is a tool for constructing data models. An entity is some thing that the users want to track. Ex: Order,Customer,Salesperson.
Entities have attributes that describe characteristics of the entity. Ex:Order, Subtotal,Tax
Entities have an identifier which is an attribute whose value is associated with one and only one entity instance. Ex: order number is an identifier of order. Entities have relationships to each other. Ex: An order has a relationship to a customer entity and also to a salesperson entity.
One-to-many relationships- one department can have many advisers,but an adviser has at most one department.
Many-to many relationships- one adviser can have many students and one student can have many advisers.
Normalization is the process of converting a poorly structured table into two or more well-structured tables.
Data integrity problem - in a database, the situation that exists when data items disagree with one another. Ex: two different names for the same customer.
Data aggregators - companies that obtain data from the public and private sources and store,integrate, and process it in sophisticated ways.

Chapter 4: Hardware and Software

Hardware consists of electronic components and related gadgetry that input,process,output,and store data according to instructions encoded in computer programs and software.
Input devices are the keyboard,mouse, document scanners,and bar code scanners.
Processing devices include the central processing unit (CPU) which is sometimes called "the brain" of the computer.
The CPU selects,instructions, processes them,performs arithmetic and logical comparisons, and stores results of operations in memory.
Dual processor is a computer with two CPU's . A Quad-processor is a computer that has four CPU's.
The CPU reads data and instructions from memory, and it stores results of computation in main memory. Main memory is sometimes called RAM( random access memory).
Special function cards can be added to the computer to augment its basic capabilities.
Output hardware- consists of video displays,printers, audio speakers,overhead projectors,and other special-purpose devices,such as large flatbed plotters.
Storage hardware- saves data and programs. ex: magnetic disks,CDs, DVDs,etc.
Computers represent data using binary digits,called bits. A bit is either a zero or a one. Bits are used for computer data because they are easy to represent electronically.
Storage Capacity terminology
Byte- number of bits to represent one character
Kilobytes----1,024 bytes-----K(abbreviation)
Megabyte----1,024K=1,048,576 bytes----MB
Gigabyte -----1,024 MB=1,073,741,824 bytes---GB
Terabyte-----1,024 GB=1,099,511,627,776 bytes

To run a program or process data,the computer first transfers the program or data from disk to the main memory. Then,to execute an instruction,it moves the instruction from main memory into the CPU via the data channel or bus. The CPU has a small amount of very fast memory called cache.
Operating system(OS) is a program that controls the computer's resources.
Memory swapping is the movement of programs and data into and out of memory. If a computer has insufficient memory for its workload, such swapping will degrade system performance.
CPUs today are classified as 32-bit or 64-bit. The cache and main memory are volatile,meaning that their contents are lost when power is off. Magnetic and optical disks are nonvolatile,meaning that their contents survive when power is off.
Users employ client computers for word processing,spreadsheets,database access,and so forth.Servers provide some service. Some servers process email;other process websites;others process;large,shared databases;and some provide all of these functions or other,similar functions. A collections of servers is called a server farm.
A grid is a network of computers that operates as an integrated whole;the grid appears to be a single computer.
Cloud refers to the computing network on the internet. Instruction set is the commands that a CPU can process.
Four Major Operating Systems
Windows-an operating system designed and sold by Microsoft. it is the most widely used operating system.
Mac OS- an operating system developed by Apple. It was developed for the Powerpc, but as of 2006 will run on Intel processors as well.
Unix- an operating system that was developed at bells labs in the 1970s. It has bee the workhorse of the scientific and engineering communities since then.
Linux-a version of unix that was developed by the open source community.It is a popular operating system for web servers.
When you buy a computer program,you are not actually buying that program. Instead, you are buying a license to use that program. large organizaitons buy a site license, which is a flat fee that authorizes the company to install the product on all of the company's computers.
Application software performs a service or function. ex: Microsoft Excel,Word, Quickbooks,etc.
Horizontal-market application is a software that provides capabilities common across all organizations and industries.
Vertical-market application software serves the needs of a specific industry.
One-of-a-kind application is a software that is developed for a specific,unique need.
You can buy computer software off-the-shelf software,off-the-shelf with alternation software,or tailor made,which is called custom developed software.
Firmware is a computer that is installed into devices such as printers,print servers, and various types of communication devices.
Client-server applications require code on both the client and the server. Email is a good example.
Thin Client- a client-server application that requires nothing more than a browser.
Thick Client- requires programs other than a browser on the user's computer.

Open source means that the source code of the program is available to the public. Source codes is computer code as written by humans and that is understandable by humans. Source code is compiled into a machine code that is processed by a computer. Machine code in general not understandable by humans and cannot be modified. In a closed source (ex. Microsoft Office) the source is highly protected and only available to trusted employees and carefully vetted contractors.
Because of Moore's law, hardware,and software will likely undergo major changes by 2020.

Chapter 3: Information Systems for Competitive Advantage

An organization's goals and objectives are determined by its competitive strategy. Competitive strategy determines the structure,features,and functions of every information system.
Five force model is used to assess an industry structure.
Five Force Model


The intensity of each of the five forces determines the characteristics of the industry,how profitable it is, and how sustainable that profitability will be.



An organization responds to the structure of it's industry by choosing a competitive strategy.

Porter's Model of Four Competitive Strategies




According to Porter, to be effective, the organization's goals,objectives,culture,and activities must be consistent with the organization strategy.

Value- the amount of money that a customer is willing to pay for a resource,product,or service.
Margin- the difference between the value that an activity generates and the cost of the activity.
A value chain is a network of value-creating activities. That generic chain consists of five primary activities and four support activities.

Primary Activities
Inbound logistics- receiving,storing, and disseminating inputs to the product.
Operations/Manufacturing- transforming inputs into the final product.
Outbound logistics- collecting,storing,and physically distributing the product to buyers.
Sales and Marketing- inducing buyers to purchase the product and providing a means for them to do so.
Customer Service- assisting customer's use of the product and thus maintaining and enhancing the product's value.
Support activities contribute indirectly to the production,sale, and service of the product.

A business process is a network of activities that generate value by transforming inputs into outputs. The cost of the business process is the cost of the inputs plus the cost of the activities. The margin of the business process is the value of the output minus the cost.
A business process is a network of activities;each activity transforms input resources into output resources. Resources flow between or among activities. Facilities store resources;some facilities,such as inventories,store physical items.

Organizations gain a competitive advantage by creating new products or services,by enhancing existing products or services,and by differentiating their products and services from those of their competitors.
Organizations can lock in customers by making it difficult or expensive for customers to switch to another product. This strategy is called establishing high switching costs. Competitive can also be gained by creating entry barriers that make it difficult and expensive for new competition to enter the market. Other ways to gain competitive advantage is by reducing cost and establishing alliances.

Chapter 2: Collaboration Information Systems

Collaboration-occurs when two or more people work together to achieve a common goal,result,or work product.
Critical collaboration Drivers:

1. Communication- a critical factor in collaboration,consisting of two key elements. First is the ability of individuals to share information and receive feedback and the availability of effective systems by which to share information.
   
2. Content Management- when multiple users are contributing and changing documents,schedules,task lists,assignments, and so forth,one user's work might interfere with another's.
3. Workflow control- a process or procedure by which content is created,edited,used,and disposed.

Collaboration Information System Components:

1. Hardware

• Client Hardware- consists of the computers and other communication devices that users employ to participate in collaboration activities.
• Server Hardware- consists of computers that are installed and operated by IT professionals that support the collaboration system.
  

2. Software

• Google Docs & Spreadsheets: a version-management system for sharing documents and spreadsheets data.
  
• Microsoft Office Grove: a collaboration product that includes version management and other useful tools.
• Microsoft Share Point: a version-control application that includes many collaboration features and function including document check-in/checkout,surveys,discussion forums,and workflow.
  

3. Data- collaboration data consists of documents,discussions, tasks, lists, and other types of team data

Procedures- there are two types of procedures important for collaboration:procedures for using the collaboration software and procedures for conducting the collaborative project. The second type of collaboration procedures concerns ho9w the team will perform it's collaborative work.

Starting Phase is to set the ground rules for the collaboration.
Planning phase is to determine "who will do what and by when."
Doing phase is when tasks are accomplished.
Wrapping Phase is when the question are we done is asked.

People are the most important component in an information system. Good communications skills,speaks their mind even if its an unpopular viewpoint, willing to enter into difficult conversations,skillful at giving and receiving negative feedback,willing to put forward unpopular ideas and thinks differently than I do/brings different perspectives are some of the twelve most important characteristics for an effective collaborator.

Synchronous communication occurs when all team members meet at the dame time, such as with conference calls.
Asynchronous communication occurs when team members do not meet at the dame time.
In virtual meetings participants do not meet in the same place and possibly not at the dame time, you can use conference calls, webinars, or multiparty text chat.
Shared view is a Microsoft product for sharing a computer screen.
Discussion Forums is where one group member posts an entry,perhaps an idea,a comment ,or a question, and other group members respond.
Team surveys is where one team member creates a list of questions and other team members respond.

File server is a computer that stores files...just like the disk in your local computer.
Version Management tracks changes to documents and provide features and functions to accommodate concurrent work.
Wiki is a shared knowledge base in which the content is contributed and managed by the wiki's users.
Voice over IP(VoIP) enables meeting participants to conduct telephone conversations using the internet connection. No separate phone line is necessary.
Sequential workflow activities that occur in a sequence and Parallel workflow reviews would occur simultaneously.
A problem is a perceived difference between what is and what ought to be.
Operational decisions concern day-to-day activities. Information systems that support operational decision making are called transaction processing systems(TPS).
Managerial decisions concern the allocation and utilization of resources.
Strategic decision concern broader-scope,organizational issues.
A structured decision process is one for which there is an understood and accepted method for making the decision . An unstructured decision process on one for which there is no agreed-on decision making method.
One consequence is that by 2020 face to face meetings will be rare.

Chapter 1: The Importance of MIS

Introduction to MIS is the most important Class in the Business School because of Moore's law.
Moore's Law- Gordon Moore, Co founder of Intel Corporation, stated that because of technology improvements in electronic chip design and manufacturing " The number of transistors per square inch on an integrate hip doubles every 18 months."
Because of Moore's Law, the cost of data communications and data storage is essentially zero.
Future business professionals need to be able to assess,evaluate,and apply emerging information technology to business.
Nonroutine cognitive skills:

• Abstract reasoning-ability to make and manipulate models.
• Systems thinking-the mental process of making one or more models of the components of a system and connecting the inputs and outputs among those components into a sensible whole,one that explains the phenomenon observed.
• Collaboration- the situation in which two or more people work together toward a common goal,result,or product.
  
• Ability to experiment-careful and reasoned analysis of an opportunity,envisioning potential products or solutions or applications of technology and then developing those ideas that seem to have the most promise.

MIS (Management Information Systems)- the development and use of information systems that help businesses achieve their goals and objectives.

Five components of an Information System- Computer hardware, software, data, procedures, and people.

Information- is knowledge derived from data, whereas data is defined as recorded facts or figures.
Another definition of information is processed data.Information is data processed by summing,ordering,averaging,grouping,comparing,or other similar operations.
What makes some information better than other information?
Accurate- good information.
Timely-produced in time for it's intended use.
Relevant-information that is appropriate to both the context and subject.
Sufficent- purpose for which it is generated but just barely so.
Worth it Cost- an appropriate relationship must exist between the cost of information and its value.
Information Technology- refers to the products, methods,inventions, and standards that are used for the purpose of producing information.
Information System- is an assembly of hardware,software,data,procedures, and people that produces information